01
Tenses — All 12 Forms
Definition
A tense is the form of a verb that shows the
time and
state of an action or event. Three main tenses — Present, Past, Future — each with four aspects
(Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous).
Present Indefinite
Habits, universal truths, permanent facts
always, usually, often, never, daily, seldom
Present Continuous
Action in progress now; fixed future plan
now, at present, currently, still, at this moment
Present Perfect
Past action with present relevance
just, already, yet, ever, recently, since, for, of late
Past Indefinite
Completed past action; past habit
yesterday, ago, last, the other day, formerly, back
Past Continuous
Action in progress at past moment
while, still, at that time, then, when
Past Perfect
Earlier of two past actions; unfulfilled hope
ever, just, already, by the time, before, after, till
Future Indefinite
Future action; promise; prediction
tomorrow, next, shortly, soon, presently
Future Continuous
Action in progress at a future moment
at this time tomorrow, by __ o'clock
Future Perfect
Completed before a future point
by, before, by the time (future point)
Rule 1 Present Indefinite — Habit & Universal Truth
Used for habitual actions (keywords: often, seldom, usually, never, always, daily) and for permanent truths
and eternal facts.
5 Examples from the Book
- The old lady goes for a walk in the morning. (habit)
- Pearl usually believes everybody. (habit)
- Arnav often gets late for lunch. (habit)
- Suhani always comes in time. (habit)
- Shaurya seldom gets up late. (habit)
Rule 2 Present Continuous — Non-Progressive (Stative) Verbs
Certain verbs are NEVER used in continuous tense: verbs of perception (see, hear, smell, taste), thinking
(know, believe, understand, mean), possession (have, own, belong, contain), feelings (love, hate, like, want,
wish), and general state (seem, appear, resemble, cost).
5 Examples — Incorrect → Correct
- He is owning a car. → He owns a car.
- We are hearing the bell. → We hear the bell.
- This house is belonging to me. → This house belongs to me.
- I am not hating him. → I don't hate him.
- The book is containing good subject-matter. → The book contains
good subject-matter.
Rule 3 Present Perfect — Preceding Action & Time Expression
(A) Used for actions just completed or with present relevance — keywords: just, already, ever, yet, recently,
of late, so far, till. (B) With time expressions: since (point), for (duration), how long, throughout.
5 Examples from the Book
- I have just seen that film. (just = recently)
- I have already had my breakfast. (already)
- He has known me for two years. (for = duration)
- She has owned this parlour since 2002. (since = point)
- In the movie we just have seen the most extraordinary scene. (just)
Rule 4 Present Perfect + Point of Time = Simple Past
Words like ago, before, yesterday, last, the other day, formerly, ever since indicate a definite point in the
past → use Simple Past, NOT Present Perfect.
5 Examples — Incorrect → Correct
- She has returned two days ago. → She returned two days
ago.
- I have met your brother yesterday. → I met your brother
yesterday.
- She has bought a car two years ago. → She bought a car two years
ago.
- He has gone to Delhi last week. → He went to Delhi last
week.
- She has completed the work before. → She completed the work
before.
Rule 5 Past Perfect — Earlier of Two Past Actions
Used when two past actions occurred; the earlier one uses Past Perfect. Keywords: ever, just, already, yet,
so far, by the time, before, after, till. Also used with want, hope, expect, think, intend (unfulfilled hope).
5 Examples from the Book
- After the guests had left, we did the washing.
- She had typed all the material by last evening.
- We had finished shopping before it started raining.
- I had already taken breakfast.
- I had wanted to help my brother. (but could not)
Rule 6 Future Tense — Ways to Express Future
Future action can be expressed in four ways: (a) Future Indefinite (will/shall), (b) Present Continuous
(definite arrangement), (c) Present Indefinite (scheduled event), (d) Future Continuous (action in progress at
future moment).
5 Examples from the Book
- They will come here shortly. (Future Indefinite)
- They are coming tomorrow. (Present Continuous — definite
plan)
- She is marrying soon. (Present Continuous — certain
arrangement)
- She arrives from the U.S.A. next month. (Present Indefinite —
scheduled)
- Sushant will be arriving soon. (Future Continuous)
02
Active & Passive Voice
Structure
Active: Subject + Verb + Object |
Passive: Object + be + V3 + by + Subject (Subjective case)
Rule 1 Passive — Tense-wise Formulas
Object of active becomes subject of passive. Active subject becomes "by + object form" (me, him, her, them,
us). The verb 'to be' changes according to tense + V3 is added.
5 Examples (Active → Passive)
- She is taught English daily by her class teacher. (Present
Indefinite)
- I am often invited to attend the party by my friends. (Present
Indefinite)
- Elections are held every five years. (Present
Indefinite)
- She was punished for her negligence. (Past Indefinite)
- Both the friends were selected for the senior hockey team. (Past Indefinite)
Rule 2 Passive — Perfect & Continuous Tenses
5 Examples from the Book
- He has just been elected as a member of the Committee. (Present
Perfect)
- She had already been admitted to hospital. (Past
Perfect)
- My friend will have been married by now. (Future
Perfect)
- The match is being telecast now. (Present Continuous)
- The match was being telecast yesterday. (Past
Continuous)
Rule 3 Vague/Indefinite Subjects Dropped in Passive
Subjects like somebody, they, nobody, people, one are dropped in passive — do NOT write "by somebody."
5 Examples — Active → Passive
- My pocket has been picked. (somebody dropped)
- The result will be declared soon. (they dropped)
- Destiny cannot be changed. (nobody → negative passive)
- She was not seen in the parlour. (none saw her)
- English is spoken all over the world. (people dropped)
Rule 4 Interrogative Sentences — Active to Passive
'Who' changes to 'By whom'; 'Whom' changes to 'Who'; 'What/Which' stay as they are.
5 Examples from the Book
- What is being written by you? (What are you writing?)
- By what are you made angry? (What makes you angry?)
- By whom are you taught English? (Who teaches you
English?)
- Who are you taught English by? (alternative correct
form)
- Whom are you talking to? (Who are you talking to?)
Rule 5 Noun Clause as Object — Special Passive Pattern
Verbs like consider, believe, report, say, know, expect, find, suppose, allege → passive uses "It is + V3 +
that…"
5 Examples from the Book
- It is considered that he is honest. (People consider
that...)
- It is hoped that he will pass. (We hope that...)
- It is known to me. (I know him → known to)
- Everybody was surprised at her sudden arrival. (at, not
by)
- Spectacles were given to me by him. / I was given spectacles by him. (two objects)
03
Modals
Definition
A modal auxiliary expresses the mood or attitude of the speaker — permission,
ability, possibility, obligation, wish, prohibition etc. Modals: can, could, may, might, shall, will, should,
would, must, ought to, used to, need, dare.
May / Might Possibility, Permission, Wish, Purpose
5 Examples from the Book
- It may/might rain. (possibility)
- May I come in? (formal permission)
- May you live long! (wish/prayer)
- She works hard so that she may pass. (purpose)
- He might have left yesterday. (past possibility — it is
possible he left)
Can / Could Ability, Permission, Request, Possibility
5 Examples from the Book
- She can write English well. (ability, present)
- Meetu could play at cards. (ability, past)
- Could you please do it for me? (polite request)
- I could have revealed the secret. (but I did not)
- You could have borrowed money. (but you did not)
Should Duty, Obligation, Future-in-Past, Purpose, Condition
5 Examples from the Book
- You should stand by your brother. (duty)
- Promises should be kept. (obligation)
- I told him that I should go there. (future in past)
- Walk carefully lest you should fall. (purpose)
- You should have stood by your brother. (unfulfilled
obligation)
Must / Have to Compulsion, Necessity, Obligation
5 Examples from the Book
- You must follow instructions. (strong necessity)
- I must leave now. (compulsion)
- I have to leave for Delhi today. (obligation, present)
- I had to leave for Delhi yesterday. (obligation, past)
- She said that she had to leave at once. (must → had to in
indirect)
Would / Used to Polite Request, Habitual Past, Wish
5 Examples from the Book
- Would you please help my son? (polite request)
- He used to go to Delhi by car. (past habit)
- She used to work in office before marriage. (discontinued
action)
- He is used to getting up early. (accustomed to — adjective
use)
- I would rather stay. (preference/wish)
04
Articles — A / An / The
Types
Indefinite Articles: A, An (sense of 'one' or 'any') |
Definite Article: The (sense of 'this' or 'that' — specific/unique)
Rule 1 A vs An — Based on Sound, Not Spelling
'A' before consonant sound. 'An' before vowel sound (including silent-H words and abbreviations pronounced
with vowel sound).
5 Examples from the Book
- a university student ('u' sounds like 'yoo' — consonant
sound)
- a European · a unique book · a uniform · a universal problem
- an hour · an heir · an honourable person · an honest man (silent H)
- an LL.B student · an M.P. · an M.L.A. · an X-ray · an F.I.R. (consonant letters with vowel sound)
- an MBA · an SSC exam (abbreviation — 'em' sound)
Rule 2 Indefinite Article 'A/An' — Specific Uses
5 Examples from the Book
- I need a book. (first mention — sense of 'one')
- A cow is a useful animal. (representing a class)
- A Shylock is living in my neighbourhood. (proper noun →
quality)
- What a hot day! / What a pretty girl! (exclamation)
- He earns fifty thousand rupees a year. (a = per,
preposition)
Rule 3 Definite Article 'The' — Unique & Specific
5 Examples from the Book
- He can play the flute. (musical instruments)
- Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. (comparison with proper
noun)
- India won the World Cup last year. (sports cups &
trophies)
- The sooner, the better. (double comparative)
- She is the weaker of the two sisters. (comparative of two —
choice)
Rule 4 'The' — Nations, Institutions, Geography
5 Examples from the Book
- The Rajputs are brave people. (caste/community)
- The Chinese are hard working. (nationality as a group)
- The Gupta dynasty · The British empire · The Sixth century (dynasties, empires, centuries)
- The BJP · The Labour Party · The Janta Party (political
parties)
- The Army · The Police · The Air Force (armed forces)
Rule 5 Omission of Article
5 Cases Where No Article Is Used
- Gold is costly. / Milk is white. (uncountable nouns in general
sense)
- She speaks French. / He knows Hindi. (names of
languages)
- He plays cricket. / She loves tennis. (sports)
- He was watching television. (TV as device — no 'the'; as
invention → the television)
- He goes to school. / She goes to church. (primary purpose of
institution)
05
Nouns — Important Rules
Kinds
Common Noun, Proper Noun, Collective Noun (fleet, audience, committee), Abstract Noun
(beauty, honesty), Material Noun (gold, coal). Key exam rules concern number, apostrophe, and singular-looking
plurals.
Rule 1 Nouns Expressing Number — Singular with Numerals
Hundred, thousand, dozen, score, million, lakh remain singular when preceded by a numeral. Without a numeral,
they take plural form.
5 Examples — Incorrect → Correct
- I gave him two hundreds rupees. → I gave him two hundred
rupees.
- I gave him five dozens pencils. → I gave him five dozen
pencils.
- There are hundreds of partially built houses. (no numeral →
plural correct)
- She earned five thousand rupees last month. (numeral →
singular)
- Thousands of people attended the rally. (no numeral →
plural)
Rule 2 Apostrophe 's — Living Things & Time/Distance
Apostrophe 's is used with: living things, time expressions, weight, distance, amount, personified nouns. NOT
with non-living things.
5 Examples from the Book
- The table's wood. → The wood of the table.
- Boy's hand · Time's march · Nature's laws (living /
personified)
- A week's holiday · A rupee's worth · A night's journey (time/distance/amount)
- Mother-in-law's behaviour (compound noun — 's only on last
word)
- Sheela and Rohit's father (one common father — 's on last
only)
Rule 3 Plural Nouns Ending in 's' — Apostrophe Only
5 Examples from the Book
- Girls' Hostel · Boys' School (plural → apostrophe only)
- Dickens' novels · Keats' poems · Kalidas' works (proper nouns
ending in s)
- Jesus' sake (classical/religious names)
- It's raining. (it's = it is; contraction)
- The dog wagged its tail. (its = possessive; NO
apostrophe)
Rule 4 Nouns with '-s' Used with Singular Verb
Branches of learning (Mathematics, Physics, Economics), Diseases (Mumps, Measles), Games (Billiards,
Athletics), Titles (Three Musketeers), Country names (United States) → singular verb.
5 Examples from the Book
- The measles have broken out in the town. → The measles has broken
out.
- Politics are a dirty game. → Politics is a dirty game.
- These news are disappointing. → This news is
disappointing.
- A series of matches are being played. → A series of matches is
being played.
- Sheeps are economically useful. → Sheep are economically
useful. (sheep = same singular & plural)
Rule 5 Collective Nouns — Singular or Plural Verb
5 Examples from the Book
- His family are not agreed on this point. (members acting
individually)
- The audience was spellbound. (acting as one unit)
- The audience were forbidden to occupy chairs. (individually)
- The team are full of high spirits. (individually)
- The team is at the top in this competition. (as a unit)
06
Pronouns
Definition
A pronoun is used in place of a noun to avoid repetition. Types: Personal,
Demonstrative (this/that/these/those), Relative (who/which/that), Interrogative (who/whom/whose/which/what),
Reflexive (myself/himself), Indefinite (everybody/someone).
Rule 1 Subject vs Object Pronoun
After prepositions → always object form. After 'than' and 'as' in comparisons → subject form.
5 Examples — Incorrect → Correct
- Between you and I. → Between you and me. (after preposition)
- Such rules do not apply to you and I. → ...to you and me.
- She is taller than I (am). (subject form after 'than')
- Who taught you English? — Me. → I. (subject of verb)
- It is I who am responsible. (not 'It is me')
Rule 2 Question Tags — Rules
Positive statement → negative tag; Negative statement → positive tag. Negative adverbs (hardly, seldom,
barely) → affirmative tag. "Everybody/Someone/Nobody" → 'they' in tag.
5 Examples from the Book
- Our teacher is intelligent, isn't she? (not 'isn't it?')
- They went to Delhi yesterday, didn't they? (not 'isn't
it?')
- He is seldom absent, is he? (seldom = negative → positive
tag)
- Everybody can speak English, can't they? (everybody →
they)
- Let us stay here, shall we? (Let us → shall we)
Rule 3 Reflexive Pronouns
5 Examples — Correct Use
- She hurt her. → She hurt herself. (subject = object)
- Myself and my friends went there. → I and my friends went
there.
- He distinguished himself in the battle.
- She enjoyed herself at the party.
- The work itself is not difficult. (emphatic use)
Rule 4 Both — Positive Only; Neither — Negative
5 Examples from the Book
- Both you as well as my brother are going. → Both you and my
brother are going.
- Both of them are not going there. → Neither of them is going
there.
- Both the brothers were honest. (Both + and ✓)
- Neither of the two solutions works. (singular verb)
- Both the books are interesting. (Both = positive only)
Rule 5 Imperative Sentence Tags
5 Examples from the Book
- Don't close the room, will you? (negative command → will
you)
- Close the room, won't you? / will you?
- Let them stay here, will they?
- Let us stay here, shall we?
- Let us play, shall we?
07
Adjectives
Definition
An adjective tells us about (qualifies) a noun or pronoun — quality, size,
colour, shape, number. Used attributively (before noun) or predicatively (after linking verb).
Rule 1 Linking Verbs — Adjective, NOT Adverb
Verbs be, become, seem, appear, taste, smell, sound, feel, turn, get, grow, keep, look, make, prove are
followed by adjective (not adverb).
5 Examples from the Book
- Her voice sounds harsh. (not harshly)
- She appears sad. (not sadly)
- I feel sick.
- She has grown wise.
- Mona is smart.
Rule 2 Comparison of Two Qualities of One Person → 'more'
5 Examples — Incorrect → Correct
- She is cleverer than honest. → She is more clever than
honest.
- He is braver than intelligent. → He is more brave than
intelligent.
- She is more beautiful than talented.
- She is more clever than her sister. (two people — cleverer also
correct)
- She is both cleverer and more intelligent than her sister. (same degree for both)
Rule 3 Ordinal Before Cardinal; Elder/Older; Later/Latter
5 Examples from the Book
- The two first chapters. → The first two chapters.
- She came latter than I. → She came later than I. (later = time)
- My oldest sister is in Chicago. → My eldest sister is in
Chicago. (blood relation)
- My sister is elder to me. (elder not followed by 'than')
- My friend is older than I. (older = general age
comparison)
Rule 4 Few / Little / Less / Fewer
5 Examples from the Book
- Little common sense can bring success. (a little = some; little
= hardly any)
- I requested him to bring me a few books. (a few = some)
- There are fewer passengers in the compartment today. (fewer =
countable)
- There are five students less in the class. (definite number +
less ✓)
- Moradabad is farther from Delhi than Meerut. (farther =
distance)
Rule 5 Superlative + other/else/of all
5 Examples — Incorrect → Correct
- My brother is the smartest player of all others. → ...of
all.
- She is better than anybody in the class. → ...than anybody
else.
- The Ganga is more sacred than any river of India. → ...than any
other river of India.
- She is a best teacher. → She is a very good teacher. ('a best' is wrong)
- She is the most intelligent person than anybody. → ...of
all.
08
Adverbs
Rule 1 Hard vs Hardly · Late vs Lately · High vs Highly
5 Examples from the Book
- She did this work very quickly. (adverb modifying verb)
- She is much wiser than her mother. (much in comparative)
- She is the very best teacher in our school. (very =
really)
- She is much the best teacher in our school. (much =
decidedly)
- She is by far the best teacher in our college. (by far = to a
large extent)
Rule 2 Enough — Position as Adverb vs Adjective
5 Examples from the Book
- She is enough wise to allow her son to go. → She is wise enough
to allow her son to go.
- He has enough money to spend. (adjective → before noun)
- She is too kind to help everybody.
- She is too healthy. → She is very healthy. (too implies excess/problem)
- She is so poor that she cannot study further. (so + that
clause)
Rule 3 Double Negatives — Avoid
5 Examples — Incorrect → Correct
- I rarely went to meet nobody. → I rarely went to meet
anybody.
- She hardly knows nothing. → She hardly knows anything.
- He does nothing without never consulting me. → ...without ever
consulting me.
- Both of us are not going. → Neither of us is going.
- She denied that she had not given him books. → She denied that
she had given him books.
Rule 4 Never vs Not; Seldom-or-Never (Correct Phrases)
5 Examples from the Book
- I never went to Ooty last year. → I did not go to Ooty last
year.
- I never remember to have said so. → I do not remember to have
said so.
- I remember never to have said so. (Correct — never modifies
infinitive)
- We seldom or ever meet our relatives. → We seldom or never meet
our relatives.
- I never allow my son to go out in the dark. (habitual action —
never ✓)
Rule 5 Use of 'as' — Regard/Describe vs Call/Elect/Consider
'As' should be used with: regard, describe, define, treat, view, know. 'As' should NOT be used with: name,
elect, think, consider, call, appoint, make, choose.
5 Examples from the Book
- I regard him my brother. → I regard him as my brother.
- Science has been defined the study of nature. → Science has been
defined as the study of nature.
- She is considered as the best dancer. → She is considered the
best dancer.
- The teacher called him as stupid. → The teacher called him
stupid.
- He was elected as the secretary. → He was elected the
secretary.
10
Spotting Errors
Format
Sentence divided into 3–4 underlined parts (a/b/c/d) + "No error" option. Identify
the grammatically wrong part. Use the 7-point checklist below.
Type 1 Subject-Verb Agreement Errors
5 Examples from the Book
- None of the diplomats was able either to comprehend or solve the problem. → were able (None of + plural noun → plural verb in modern
usage)
- The whole block of flats including two shops were destroyed in fire. → was destroyed (subject = block — singular)
- One of the state in which Satyagraha was offered was Rajkot. → states (one of the + plural noun)
- His assistants have and are still doing excellent work. → have
been doing (parallelism)
- He always practices justice and cares for moral principles. No error.
Type 2 Wrong Tense & Wrong Preposition
5 Examples from the Book
- Perhaps you know that I have passed the examination in 1990. → passed (1990 = point of time → simple past)
- Hardly the inspector had arrived there when the house was set ablaze. → Hardly had the inspector arrived (inversion after hardly)
- Since his arrival at his native town he is trying to spread education. → he has been trying (since + present perfect continuous)
- He feels his troubles as much or even more than they. → them (object case after 'than' — informal comparison)
- Such rules do not apply to you and I. → me (after preposition 'to')
Type 3 Redundancy, Parallelism & Misuse Errors
5 Examples from the Book
- Rather than go with Amit, he decided to stay at home. No error. → No error. (rather than + V1 → correct)
- Long life is good if one be happy and has friends. → is
happy (parallelism: be → is)
- I like reading more than to play games. → playing (parallelism: reading → playing)
- The sum and substance of this poem is as follows. → are as
follows (sum and substance = plural)
- He lay the watch on the table and then forgot all about it when he went out. No
error. → No error.
Type 4 Hardly / Scarcely / No sooner — Inverted Order
5 Examples — Incorrect → Correct
- Hardly I had left when it began to rain. → Hardly had I left when
it began to rain.
- Hardly had she left than it rained. → ...when it rained.
(hardly…when, NOT than)
- Scarcely I had reached when he left. → Scarcely had I reached
when he left.
- No sooner did I reach than he left. → No sooner did I reach than
he left. (no sooner…than ✓)
- Never have I seen such a sight. (inversion after never at
start)
Type 5 Article & Adjective Errors
5 Examples from the Book
- Another baffling change that I notice in him now-a-days is that he avoids to speak to
me. → avoids speaking (avoid + V-ing)
- I asked him how could he go out if it started raining. → how he
could go out (indirect question — statement order)
- In various parts of the country ponds just dry down in the scorching heat. →
dry up (dry up — correct phrasal verb)
- He lay the watch on the table. (lay = past of lie OR transitive
'lay' with object — both possible)
- The team was now in the field and about to take their place. → its place (team as unit → its)
💡7-Point Spotting Error Checklist: (1)
Subject-Verb Agreement (2) Correct Tense (3) Correct Preposition (4) Article errors (5) Pronoun case (6)
Redundancy (7) Parallelism & comparison